Showing posts with label surgery in india. Show all posts
Showing posts with label surgery in india. Show all posts

Monday, August 10, 2015

Surgery during Chola Kingdom

It can be acquainted about the medical services of the Chola kings from the inscriptions. A temple inscription of 11th century speaks in detail about a hospital functioned in the name of Vira Cholan Athura Salai. The hospital was founded in the name of king Vira Chola (1063-1069 AD). A Brahmin by the name of Savarna Kothandarama Aswathama Bhattan of Alampakkum was in charge of this hospital that had only fifteen beds. His title indicates he was also the chief consultant. The person who was second to the consultant is referred to as “the one who treats”. There were nurses (females) to assist him in caring the patients and administering medicine. An attendant was there to serve food and water purified by the addition of cardamom and the lamichcham (roots of Vetiveria zizanioides)

From the salary particulars revealed by this inscription, it is clear that the surgeon received much less remuneration compared to that of the consultant or his second in command. As we have observed earlier the departments of medicine and surgery were taken care of by two different classes of people. The profession of surgery was considered inferior to general medicine and had been performed by people belonging to lower classes. This could explain the salary differences between the physician and the surgeon in this ancient hospital.
The sculpture shown below depicts an event of surgery in ancient India. Persons belonging to various professions are involved in the process of surgery. Among them, the physician of the higher rank is seen with a turban, a bright aura around his head and a book in his hands. The person in the next rank is depicted here with a dull aura and without a turban but. The surgeon shown appears to be ordinary citizen as without any special feature to reflect his identity. He is neither wearing a turban nor any ornaments. The one who cares the patient is a female, probably a nurse or a relative to the patient. Though the surgeons were not respected and properly paid, there had been always a unique place for surgery in Ayurveda in the past.
Previously cited temple inscription also provides a list of medicines stored in the Vira Chola’s hospital. The list includes the following.

Vasa haritaki Dasamoola haritaki
Bilvatha haritaki Bala eranda Taila
Panchaka Taila Lasunathi eranda Taila
Uthamkarnathi Taila Mandura Vadakam
Sirovasthy Brahmium
Kadumpuri Kandiram
Vimalai Sunetri
Tamrathi Vajrakalpam
Kalyana lavanam

Sanskrit Name Latin Name
Vasa Adathoda vasica
Haritaki Terminalia Chebula
Bala sida cordifolia
Lasuna Allium sativum
Eranda Ricinus communis
Bilva Eagle marmelos
Ballathaka Semicarpus anacardium
Mandura Ferric oxide

Mandura means iron dust. Vadakam means dried medicinal balls. Maduram is the powder scattered while thrashing the iron rods in the iron smith workshops. This iron powder collected from soil, is mixed with cow’s urine and fried in a mud pan. This process is referred to as the purification of manduram (the iron dust).
Pararajasekaram, a Tamil medical text written in Sri Lanka in the 16th century describes the process of preparing Mandura Vadakam as follows: “the purified iron dust is mixed with lime juice and boiled. When the mixture reaches the semi solid state, dried ginger, black pepper, long pepper and garlic are added to it. The final product is made into dry pills. Mandura vadakam thus prepared when consumed with cooked rice and buttermilk will cure anemia.”
Vasa Haritaki, Dasamoola Haritaki and Bilvatha Haritaki are the medicines prepared with chebulic myrobalan. Ayurvedic texts often prescribe different kinds of Haritakii-based preparations to cure various diseases. Haritaki medicines are prepared by processing chebulic myrobalan by removing the seeds and inserting other herbal ingredients into it. Vasa Haritaki is a formulation that contains Adathoda vasica and Haritaki.
Taila refers to the medicated oil used for external application. Butter or a vegetable oil, especially, the sesame oil is used in such preparations. When castor oil is used in place of sesame oil the preparation is called Eranda Taila. When the herb known as bala (Sida cordifolia)) is used as the main ingredient of this medicated oil, the preparation is called Bala eranda Thailam. This oil is used to treat neck cramp, facial paralysis, noise in the ears and headache. Lasunadi Eranda Taila is a medicated oil in which garlic is the main ingredient.

It is clear that the Government sponsored hospitals of the Chola period (between 10th and 13th centuries) provided health care based on the traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. At the same time, one cannot rule out the possibility of the existence of other local remedies as well as those prescribed by Yogis known as “Siddhars”.
It can be acquainted about the medical services of the Chola kings from the inscriptions. A temple inscription of 11th century speaks in detail about a hospital functioned in the name of Vira Cholan Athura Salai. The hospital was founded in the name of king Vira Chola (1063-1069 AD). A Brahmin by the name of Savarna Kothandarama Aswathama Bhattan of Alampakkum was in charge of this hospital that had only fifteen beds. His title indicates he was also the chief consultant. The person who was second to the consultant is referred to as “the one who treats”. There were nurses (females) to assist him in caring the patients and administering medicine. An attendant was there to serve food and water purified by the addition of cardamom and the lamichcham (roots of Vetiveria zizanioides) From the salary particulars revealed by this inscription, it is clear that the surgeon received much less remuneration compared to that of the consultant or his second in command. As we have observed earlier the departments of medicine and surgery were taken care of by two different classes of people. The profession of surgery was considered inferior to general medicine and had been performed by people belonging to lower classes. This could explain the salary differences between the physician and the surgeon in this ancient hospital. The sculpture shown below depicts an event of surgery in ancient India. Persons belonging to various professions are involved in the process of surgery. Among them, the physician of the higher rank is seen with a turban, a bright aura around his head and a book in his hands. The person in the next rank is depicted here with a dull aura and without a turban but. The surgeon shown appears to be ordinary citizen as without any special feature to reflect his identity. He is neither wearing a turban nor any ornaments. The one who cares the patient is a female, probably a nurse or a relative to the patient. Though the surgeons were not respected and properly paid, there had been always a unique place for surgery in Ayurveda in the past. Previously cited temple inscription also provides a list of medicines stored in the Vira Chola’s hospital. The list includes the following. Vasa haritaki Dasamoola haritaki Bilvatha haritaki Bala eranda Taila Panchaka Taila Lasunathi eranda Taila Uthamkarnathi Taila Mandura Vadakam Sirovasthy Brahmium Kadumpuri Kandiram Vimalai Sunetri Tamrathi Vajrakalpam Kalyana lavanam Sanskrit Name Latin Name Vasa Adathoda vasica Haritaki Terminalia Chebula Bala sida cordifolia Lasuna Allium sativum Eranda Ricinus communis Bilva Eagle marmelos Ballathaka Semicarpus anacardium Mandura Ferric oxide Mandura means iron dust. Vadakam means dried medicinal balls. Maduram is the powder scattered while thrashing the iron rods in the iron smith workshops. This iron powder collected from soil, is mixed with cow’s urine and fried in a mud pan. This process is referred to as the purification of manduram (the iron dust). Pararajasekaram, a Tamil medical text written in Sri Lanka in the 16th century describes the process of preparing Mandura Vadakam as follows: “the purified iron dust is mixed with lime juice and boiled. When the mixture reaches the semi solid state, dried ginger, black pepper, long pepper and garlic are added to it. The final product is made into dry pills. Mandura vadakam thus prepared when consumed with cooked rice and buttermilk will cure anemia.” Vasa Haritaki, Dasamoola Haritaki and Bilvatha Haritaki are the medicines prepared with chebulic myrobalan. Ayurvedic texts often prescribe different kinds of Haritakii-based preparations to cure various diseases. Haritaki medicines are prepared by processing chebulic myrobalan by removing the seeds and inserting other herbal ingredients into it. Vasa Haritaki is a formulation that contains Adathoda vasica and Haritaki. Taila refers to the medicated oil used for external application. Butter or a vegetable oil, especially, the sesame oil is used in such preparations. When castor oil is used in place of sesame oil the preparation is called Eranda Taila. When the herb known as bala (Sida cordifolia)) is used as the main ingredient of this medicated oil, the preparation is called Bala eranda Thailam. This oil is used to treat neck cramp, facial paralysis, noise in the ears and headache. Lasunadi Eranda Taila is a medicated oil in which garlic is the main ingredient. It is clear that the Government sponsored hospitals of the Chola period (between 10th and 13th centuries) provided health care based on the traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. At the same time, one cannot rule out the possibility of the existence of other local remedies as well as those prescribed by Yogis known as “Siddhars”

Wednesday, February 11, 2015

Ancient Indian inventions

Ancient Hindu Zero - BindhuZero (0)LINK to other article related to Aryabhatta’s Bhakshali manuscript mentions zero,which was translated by Arabic first then by Europeans.

Ink-
Ancient Indians first made ink  by burning tar, pitch, bones. Carbon was the primary pigment.


The Hindu Vedas written in Ink are among some of the most ancient texts in the world
The Hindu Vedas written in Ink are among some of the most ancient texts in the world

 Sea Dock -Link to other articleIndia was the first nation to have a dock that dated back to 6000 BCE. Harappa Civilization were the first to build a dock in Lothal. This proves their oceanology and marine engineering. The Lothal Dock proves their precision and vast knowledge about tidal waves and hydrography.
Historic Lothal Dock


Diamond MiningDiamonds were first mined in India. Till 18th century, India was the only country where diamonds were found and exported to other countries. Various ancient books have mentioned the use of diamond as a tool and have also mentioned the exquisiteness of this sparkling stone
Some of the largest diamonds in the world were stolen from Hindu kings and now housed outside of India

Medical Vaccinations & Treatments (Ayurveda)Link to other articleLeprosy was first noticed by Indians and various ancient remedies are also mentioned in the Atharva Veda. Treatment for  stones was first introduced in India. Small Pox vaccinations were first cured in India and symptoms and ways of immunization against small pox were mentioned in 8 th century by Madhav.Ayurveda and Siddha are the two primitive methods of treatment that originated in India and are still used. Indian medical practitioner  Nobel Laureate Upendra Nath Bramhachari invented methods to treat Visceral Leishmaniasis or Kala Azar.
The ancient form of medical treatments & foods is called Ayurveda

Surgery Link to other articleAncient Indian physician Sushruta performed first Cataract surgery and plastic surgery back to >2000 BCE and his work were later translated to Arabic language and gradually passed on to European countries. He used a curved needle and removed the cataract by pushing the lens. People from far off countries came to India to seek treatment.
Surgery 1000s of years ago in Ancient India
Wool, Cotton, Plant (Natural Fibers)Natural fibers like wool, cotton and plant fiber originated from India. Evidences show that people of the Indus Valley used cotton and India pioneered the art of cotton spinning and used it in making fabric. Jute, a plant fiber, was cultivated in India since ancient times and was later exported to other countries. Cashmere wool, which is supposed to be the finest wool was first made in Kashmir and was used to make hand- made shawls. These shawls have maintained their richness and exclusivity even today.
Natural fibers from ancient India
ButtonsButtons are a major part of our clothing even today. Buttons were invented in India and various historical evidences and excavations prove that buttons were used by the people belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. Shells were given various shapes and were pierced into a hole. Earlier they were used more as an embellishment but were gradually used to fasten clothes
Buttons made of stone from Ancient India
Cotton Gin is a machine used to separate cotton from the seeds. The evidence of this machine was found through the carvings on Ajanta caves where the pictures of these machines were engraved. Dating back to 500 AD, this hand roller machine was locally called Charkha. This machine has undergone changes through the course of time but the most primitive form of cotton gin originated from India.
Cotton Gin origins from Ancient India
Crucible SteelHigh-quality steel has been produced in South India since ancient times. They used crucible technique toproduce high quality steel in Ancient India.. Pure wrought iron was first  mixed with glass and charcoal and was heated till the metal melted and absorbed the carbon.

Steel from ancient India
Steel from ancient India
 
 
Source-
Adopted from chakranews.com 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Saturday, February 7, 2015

Sushrut samhita and Ancient Surgery in India

Health Sciences-2: are we co-creators surgery!
Ayurveda medicine was of two types-(a) refining-Panchakarma, by these are-(1) fixing the blame by vomiting from vomiting-mouth, 2. catharsis-find fault, mainly rectal route (3) basti (enema) (4) raktamokshan-poison thing in blood or body cutting somewhere, then remove it. (V) nasya-nasal by snigdh thing off (b) mitigation-drugs by Medicare, Its perimeter was very prevalent. Eight types of therapies arrive, are described. (1) work medicine-General Medicine (2) comer (3) Ghost lore balrog bhrityam-medical-psychiatric medicine (4) shalakya tantra-urdhvang i.e. nose, ear, throat etc. medicine (5) surgical apparatus-surgical (6) agad tantra-venom therapy (VII) chemicals-chemotherapy (8) bajikran-patrushev multiplication drugs:-charaka is said, which is where, around the same medicines are giving the nature of diseases. So their surroundings plants, Upon inspection of the mangroves and were to use. A world of Acharya was gathered, discussions and phalashruti later as ' the code ' charaka. From the point of view of this code 177 pranijanya vanaspatijanya attended 341 births, drug, among the 64 minerals mentioned. Similarly, pranijanya and vanaspatijanya in the code up, sushrut 57 64 minerals using and describe methods of medicinal drugs. They powder, infusion, decoction, Avleh etc. were prepared in many forms in medicines. This anterior also works to get some wonderful description of the drugs. Such as balmiki Ramayana, RAM-Ravana war time when lax was traumatized and they become comatose IPO market as also on pranantak, Jamvant for the treatment of-ji by Hanuman in the Himalayas receive four described the rare drugs. Dead sanjeevani mortage chaiv vishalyakranimpi. Sandhani suvarnakranin chaiv f mahaushdhim || Yuddhakand 74-33 (1) vishalyakrani-body-remove (2) walked into a weapon to sandhani-healing-3 suvarnakrani-skin color right containing 4 mritsanjivni-resurrection after bauddhakal in charaka that Nagarjuna, vagbhatt etc. of the juice from the endeavours of many evolved. This mercury is extremely parinamkarak reduces the pure medicinal use. In addition, metals, As-iron, copper, gold, silver, and reheat

 in miscellaneous jast juices-the process of converting them from developed to consume. It consumed and padpajanya medicines also come to work in healing. Surgery-Surgeons of the past few years the world famous organization of fragrance has a calendar, removed It's by far the best surgeons (surgeon) were given pictures. It was the first picture by Acharya sushrut and was the world's first surgeon. The history of surgery in Indian tradition is very ancient. Indian medicine God dhanvantari is considered the progenitor of the surgical action. In antiquity the area had good progress by our nation's physicians. Several treatises were created. Such texts sushrut, creators of pushkalavat, goprakshit, banquet, kankayan, greg, galav videh, nimi, jivak, parvatak, hiranyaksh,, Kashyap, etc. names are remarkable. In addition to numerous ancient texts these creators in this field would have knowledge of the progress of the Indians. Rigveda and atharva disorders of the heart, stomach and details of vrikkon. A similar body has been navadvaron and description of the ten holes. Vedic period were accomplished brain surgeon surgical operation. Rigveda (8-86-2) according to the vimna and vishvak were udbhrant, Rishi The surgery was done away with by his disease. This treatise is also Sage narshad details. When they are completely deaf by their treatment by the ashwini cameron returned for the hearing had the power. Eye like soft organs were then doctor of medicine make efficiently. Rigveda (1-116-11) in the surgical operation of the flame by vandan Sage get back. In the Buddhist period in the area of the surgical action faster progress. According to pitak ' modestly ' rajgrih a shreshthi Sir were have bugs in them. Then from the surgical action jivak wagered only Remove bugs but it turned to fix wounds on drugs did the liniment. Our mythology also has been given enough information about the surgical action. According to Shiva purana ' ' when Shiva was hacked by-ji efficient of Sir cameron was imposed by their new head ashwini. Similarly the head of Ganesha-ji cut his torso was linked on the elephant's head. ' Ramayana ' and ' see ' the Mahabharata as a few examples. ' Ramayana ' is that there is a place called yajmane svake uddhrityavimna netre dadau."That is the eye of a man if need be by removing the other was imposed. (E. RA.-2-16-5) anything said in the House of ' Mahabharata ' feast and narada dialog to get the 8 parts of the surgery. A valid strong Singh bhati says sushrut gurushishya surgical training in the code of tradition was through. Murdon and discontinuation of ravanas are dismantled by practical knowledge was given. Through various instruments and trained for fire shalyagya's actions were concluded. Raconteurs patient blood was also crucified. To use the tool sharp edge was shiravedh. Eight types of surgical actions-by sushrut The name of the operation described actions (1) chedya (for accidental perforation) (ii) (iii) vulnerability (for penetration) time (to separate) (4) vedhya (body
स्वास्थ्य विज्ञान -२ : सर्जरी के सर्जक हम ही हैं!
आयुर्वेद चिकित्सा दो प्रकार से की जाती थी- (अ) शोधन-पंचकर्म द्वारा, ये निम्न हैं- (१) वमन- मुंह से उल्टी करके दोष दूर करना, (२) विरेचन-मुख्यत: गुदा मार्ग से दोष निकालना, (३) बस्ति (एनीमा) (४) रक्तमोक्षण-जहरीली चीज काटने पर या शरीर में खराब रक्त कहीं हो, तो उसे निकालना। (५) नस्य- नाक द्वारा स्निग्ध चीज देना (ब) शमन- औषधि द्वारा चिकित्सा, इसकी परिधि बहुत व्याप्त थी। आठ प्रकार की चिकित्साएं बताई गई हैं। (१) काय चिकित्सा-सामान्य चिकित्सा (२) कौमार भृत्यम्‌-बालरोग चिकित्सा (३) भूत विद्या- मनोरोग चिकित्सा (४) शालाक्य तंत्र- उर्ध्वांग अर्थात्‌ नाक, कान, गला आदि की चिकित्सा (५) शल्य तंत्र-शल्य चिकित्सा (६) अगद तंत्र-विष चिकित्सा (७) रसायन-रसायन चिकित्सा (८) बाजीकरण-पुरुषत्व वर्धन औषधियां:- चरक ने कहा, जो जहां रहता है, उसी के आसपास प्रकृति ने रोगों की औषधियां दे रखी हैं। अत: वे अपने आसपास के पौधों, वनस्पतियों का निरीक्षण व प्रयोग करने का आग्रह करते थे। एक समय विश्व के अनेक आचार्य एकत्रित हुए, विचार-विमर्श हुआ और उसकी फलश्रुति आगे चलकर ‘चरक संहिता‘ के रूप में सामने आई। इस संहिता में औषधि की दृष्टि से ३४१ वनस्पतिजन्य, १७७ प्राणिजन्य, ६४ खनिज द्रव्यों का उल्लेख है। इसी प्रकार सुश्रुत संहिता में ३८५ वनस्पतिजन्य, ५७ प्राणिजन्य तथा ६४ खनिज द्रव्यों से औषधीय प्रयोग व विधियों का वर्णन है। इनसे चूर्ण, आसव, काढ़ा, अवलेह आदि अनेक में रूपों औषधियां तैयार होती थीं। इससे पूर्वकाल में भी ग्रंथों में कुछ अद्भुत औषधियों का वर्णन मिलता है। जैसे बाल्मीकी रामायण में राम-रावण युद्ध के समय जब लक्ष्मण पर प्राणांतक आघात हुआ और वे मूर्छित हो गए, उस समय इलाज हेतु जामवन्त ने हनुमान जी के पास हिमालय में प्राप्त होने वाली चार दुर्लभ औषधियों का वर्णन किया। मृत संजीवनी चैव विशल्यकरणीमपि। सुवर्णकरणीं चैव सन्धानी च महौषधीम्‌॥ युद्धकाण्ड ७४-३३ (१) विशल्यकरणी-शरीर में घुसे अस्त्र निकालने वाली (२) सन्धानी- घाव भरने वाली (३) सुवर्णकरणी-त्वचा का रंग ठीक रखने वाली (४) मृतसंजीवनी-पुनर्जीवन देने वाली चरक के बाद बौद्धकाल में नागार्जुन, वाग्भट्ट आदि अनेक लोगों के प्रयत्न से रस शास्त्र विकसित हुआ। इसमें पारे को शुद्ध कर उसका औषधीय उपयोग अत्यंत परिणामकारक रहा। इसके अतिरिक्त धातुओं, यथा-लौह, ताम्र, स्वर्ण, रजत, जस्त को विविध रसों में डालना और गरम करना-इस प्रक्रिया से उन्हें भस्म में परिवर्तित करने की विद्या विकसित हुई। यह भस्म और पादपजन्य औषधियां भी रोग निदान में काम आती हैं। शल्य चिकित्सा- कुछ वर्षों पूर्व इंग्लैण्ड के शल्य चिकित्सकों के विश्व प्रसिद्ध संगठन ने एक कैलेण्डर निकाला, उसमें विश्व के अब तक के श्रेष्ठ शल्य चिकित्सकों (सर्जन) के चित्र दिए गए थे। उसमें पहला चित्र आचार्य सुश्रुत का था तथा उन्हें विश्व का पहला शल्य चिकित्सक बताया गया था। वैसे भारतीय परम्परा में शल्य चिकित्सा का इतिहास बहुत प्राचीन है। भारतीय चिकित्सा के देवता धन्वंतरि को शल्य क्रिया का भी जनक माना जाता है। प्राचीनकाल में इस क्षेत्र में हमारे देश के चिकित्सकों ने अच्छी प्रगति की थी। अनेक ग्रंथ रचे गए। ऐसे ग्रंथों के रचनाकारों में सुश्रुत, पुष्कलावत, गोपरक्षित, भोज, विदेह, निमि, कंकायन, गार्ग्य, गालव, जीवक, पर्वतक, हिरण्याक्ष, कश्यप आदि के नाम विशेष उल्लेखनीय हैं। इन रचनाकारों के अलावा अनेक प्राचीन ग्रंथों से इस क्षेत्र में भारतीयों की प्रगति का ज्ञान होता है। ऋग्वेद तथा अथर्ववेद में दिल, पेट तथा वृक्कों के विकारों का विवरण है। इसी तरह शरीर में नवद्वारों तथा दस छिद्रों का विवरण दिया गया है। वैदिक काल के शल्य चिकित्सक मस्तिष्क की शल्य क्रिया में निपुण थे। ऋग्वेद (८-८६-२) के अनुसार जब विमना और विश्वक ऋषि उद्भ्रान्त हो गए थे, तब शल्य क्रिया द्वारा उनका रोग दूर किया गया। इसी ग्रंथ में नार्षद ऋषि का भी विवरण है। जब वे पूर्ण रूप से बधिर हो गए तब अश्विनी कुमारों ने उपचार करके उनकी श्रवण शक्ति वापस लौटा दी थी। नेत्र जैसे कोमल अंग की चिकित्सा तत्कालीन चिकित्सक कुशलता से कर लेते थे। ऋग्वेद (१-११६-११) में शल्य क्रिया द्वारा वन्दन ऋषि की ज्योति वापस लाने का उल्लेख मिलता है। शल्य क्रिया के क्षेत्र में बौद्ध काल में भी तीव्र गति से प्रगति हुई। ‘विनय पिटक‘ के अनुसार राजगृह के एक श्रेष्ठी के सर में कीड़े पड़ गए थे। तब वैद्यराज जीवक ने शल्य क्रिया से न केवल वे कीड़े निकाले बल्कि इससे बने घावों को ठीक करने के लिए उन पर औषधि का लेप किया था। हमारे पुराणों में भी शल्य क्रिया के बारे में पर्याप्त जानकारी दी गई। ‘शिव पुराण‘ के अनुसार जब शिव जी ने दक्ष का सर काट दिया था तब अश्विनी कुमारों ने उनको नया सर लगाया था। इसी तरह गणेश जी का मस्तक कट जाने पर उनके धड़ पर हाथी का सर जोड़ा गया था। ‘रामायण‘ तथा ‘महाभारत‘ में भी ऐसे कुछ उदाहरण मिलते हैं। ‘रामायण‘ में एक स्थान पर कहा है कि ‘याजमाने स्वके नेत्रे उद्धृत्याविमना ददौ।‘ अर्थात्‌ आवश्यकता पड़ने पर एक मनुष्य की आंख निकालकर दूसरे को लगा दी जाती थी। (बा.रा.-२-१६-५) ‘महाभारत‘ के सभा पर्व में युधिष्ठिर व नारद के संवाद से शल्य चिकित्सा के ८ अंगों का परिचय मिलता है। वैद्य सबल सिंह भाटी कहते हैं कि सुश्रुत संहिता में शल्य चिकित्सा का प्रशिक्षण गुरुशिष्य परम्परा के माध्यम से दिया जाता था। मुर्दों तथा पुतलों का विच्छेदन करके व्यावहारिक ज्ञान दिया जाता था। प्रशिक्षित शल्यज्ञ विभिन्न उपकरणों तथा अग्नि के माध्यम से तमाम क्रियाएं सम्पन्न करते थे। जरूरत पड़ने पर रोगी को खून भी चढ़ाया जाता था। इसके लिए तेज धार वाले उपकरण शिरावेध का उपयोग होता था। आठ प्रकार की शल्य क्रियाएं- सुश्रुत द्वारा वर्णित शल्य क्रियाओं के नाम इस प्रकार हैं (१) छेद्य (छेदन हेतु) (२) भेद्य (भेदन हेतु) (३) लेख्य (अलग करने हेतु) (४) वेध्य (शरीर में हानिकारक द्रव्य निकालने के लिए) (५) ऐष्य (नाड़ी में घाव ढूंढने के लिए) (६) अहार्य (हानिकारक उत्पत्तियों को निकालने के लिए) (७) विश्रव्य (द्रव निकालने के लिए) (८) सीव्य (घाव सिलने के लिए) सुश्रुत संहिता में शस्त्र क्रियाओं के लिए आवश्यक यंत्रों (साधनों) तथा शस्त्रों (उपकरणों) का भी विस्तार से वर्णन किया गया है। आजकल की शल्य क्रिया में ‘फौरसेप्स‘ तथा ‘संदस‘ यंत्र फौरसेप्स तथा टोंग से मिलते-जुलते हैं। सुश्रुत के महान ग्रन्थ में २४ प्रकार के स्वास्तिकों, २ प्रकार के संदसों, २८ प्रकार की शलाकाओं तथा २० प्रकार की नाड़ियों (नलिका) का उल्लेख हुआ है। इनके अतिरिक्त शरीर के प्रत्येक अंग की शस्त्र-क्रिया के लिए बीस प्रकार के शस्त्रों (उपकरणों) का भी वर्णन किया गया है। पूर्व में जिन आठ प्रकार की शल्य क्रियाओं का संदर्भ आया है, वे विभिन्न साधनों व उपकरणों से की जाती थीं। उपकरणों (शस्त्रों) के नाम इस प्रकार हैं- अर्द्धआधार, अतिमुख, अरा, बदिशा, दंत शंकु, एषणी, कर-पत्र, कृतारिका, कुथारिका, कुश-पात्र, मण्डलाग्र, मुद्रिका, नख शस्त्र, शरारिमुख, सूचि, त्रिकुर्चकर, उत्पल पत्र, वृध-पत्र, वृहिमुख तथा वेतस-पत्र। आज से कम से कम तीन हजार वर्ष पूर्व सुश्रुत ने सर्वोत्कृष्ट इस्पात के उपकरण बनाये जाने की आवश्यकता बताई। आचार्य ने इस पर भी बल दिया है कि उपकरण तेज धार वाले हों तथा इतने पैने कि उनसे बाल को भी दो हिस्सों में काटा जा सके। शल्यक्रिया से पहले व बाद में वातावरण व उपकरणों की शुद्धता (रोग-प्रतिरोधी वातावरण) पर सुश्रुत ने इतना जोर दिया है तथा इसके लिए ऐसे साधनों का वर्णन किया है कि आज के शल्य चिकित्सक भी दंग रह जाएं। शल्य चिकित्सा (सर्जरी) से पहले रोगी को संज्ञा-शून्य करने (एनेस्थेशिया) की विधि व इसकी आवश्यकता भी बताई गई है। ‘भोज प्रबंध‘ (९२७ ईस्वी) में बताया गया है कि राजा भोज को कपाल की शल्य-क्रिया के पूर्व ‘सम्मोहिनी‘ नामक चूर्ण सुंघाकर अचेत किया गया था। चौदह प्रकार की पट्टियां- इन उपकरणों के साथ ही आवश्यकता पड़ने पर बांस, स्फटिक तथा कुछ विशेष प्रकार के प्रस्तर खण्डों का उपयोग भी शल्य क्रिया में किया जाता था। शल्य क्रिया के मर्मज्ञ महर्षि सुश्रुत ने १४ प्रकार की पट्टियों का विवरण किया है। उन्होंने हड्डियों के खिसकने के छह प्रकारों तथा अस्थि-भंग के १२ प्रकारों की विवेचना की है। यही नहीं, उनके ग्रंथ में कान संबंधी बीमारियों के २८ प्रकार तथा नेत्र-रोगों के २६ प्रकार बताए गए हैं। सुश्रुत संहिता में मनुष्य की आंतों में कर्कट रोग (कैंसर) के कारण उत्पन्न हानिकर तन्तुओं (टिश्युओं) को शल्य क्रिया से हटा देने का विवरण है। शल्यक्रिया द्वारा शिशु-जन्म (सीजेरियन) की विधियों का वर्णन किया गया है। ‘न्यूरो-सर्जरी‘ अर्थात्‌ रोग-मुक्ति के लिए नाड़ियों पर शल्य-क्रिया का उल्लेख है तथा आधुनिक काल की सर्वाधिक पेचीदी क्रिया ‘प्लास्टिक सर्जरी‘ का सविस्तार वर्णन सुश्रुत के ग्रन्थ में है। आधुनिकतम विधियों का भी उल्लेख इसमें है। कई विधियां तो ऐसी भी हैं जिनके सम्बंध में आज का चिकित्सा शास्त्र भी अनभिज्ञ है। संक्षेप में यह कहा जा सकता है कि प्राचीन भारत में शल्य क्रिया अत्यंत उन्नत अवस्था में थी, जबकि शेष विश्व इस विद्या से बिल्कुल अनभिज्ञ था।