Vaishesika Sutras by Kanada describe Laws of Motion & Concept of Atom

Acharya Kanada, author of Vaishesika Sutra

Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy in Ancient Vedic India.
They were originally proposed by the sage Kaṇāda (or Kana-bhuk, literally, atom-eater) around the 2nd century BC.
Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism and postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms.
Vaisheshika is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya (syllogism, inference).
The philosophers of this school used to debate on various subjects and try to achieve a conclusion.

Acharya Kaṇāda (Sanskrit: कणाद) was a Hindu sage and philosopher who was born in Prabhas Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India.
He composed his Sutras around 600 BCE.

His primary area of study was Rasavādam, considered to be a type of alchemy. He is said to have believed that all living beings are composed of five elements: water, fire, earth, air, ether.
Vegetables have only water, insects have water and fire, birds have water, fire, earth and air, and Humans, the top of the creation, have ether—the sense of discrimination (time, space, mind) are one.
He theorized that Gurutva (Hindi/Sanskrit for Gravity) was responsible for the falling of objects on the Earth.
Thus, he was the first person to identify and describe gravity (much ahead of Newton) after Prasnopanishad described it around 6000 BC.

Literature of Vaisheshika

The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in theVaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda (or Kaṇabhaksha). This treatise is divided into ten books. The two commentaries on the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Rāvaṇabhāṣya and Bhāradvājavṛtti are no more extant.
Praśastapāda’s Padārthadharmasaṁgraha (c. 4th century) is the next important work of this school.
Though commonly known as bhāṣya of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject.
The next Vaisheshika treatise, Candra’s Daśapadārthaśāstra (648) based on Praśastapāda’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation.
The earliest commentary available on Praśastapāda’s treatise is Vyomaśiva’s Vyomavatī (8th century). The other three commentaries are Śridhara’s Nyāyakandalī (991), Udayana’s Kiranāvali (10th century) and Śrivatsa’s Līlāvatī (11th century). Śivāditya’s Saptapadārthīwhich also belongs to the same period, presents the Nyāya and the Vaiśeṣika principles as a part of one whole. Śaṁkara Miśra’s Upaskāraon Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is also an important work.

3 Vaishesika Sutras proposed 1800 years before Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

• वेगः निमित्तविशेषात कर्मणो जायते |
  Translation : Change of motion is due to impressed force.
  (The law stated that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.)
• वेगः निमित्तापेक्षात कर्मणो जायते नियतदिक क्रियाप्रबन्धहेतु |
  Translation : Change of motion is proportional to the impressed force and is in the direction of the force.
• वेगः संयोगविशेषविरोधी |
  Translation : Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

The Categories or Padārtha

According to the Vaisheshika school, all things which exist, which can be cognised, and which can be named are padārthas (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories, dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity) and samavāya (inherence). Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara, Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence.
The last three categories are defined as budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

1.Dravya (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are, pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vāyu (air), ākaśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space), ātman (self) and manas (mind). The first five are called bhūtas, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.

2.Guṇa (quality): The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions 17 guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 guṇas (qualities) are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praśastapāda added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), śabda (sound) and saṁkāsra (faculty).

3.Karma (activity): The karmas (activities) like guṇas (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. Ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space) and ātman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity).

4.Sāmānya (generality): Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sāmānya.

5.Viśeṣa (particularity): By means of viśeṣa, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the viśeṣas.

6.Samavāya (inherence): Kaṇāda defined samavāya as the relation between the cause and the effect. Praśastapāda defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of samavāya is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.

The atomic theory

An interesting story states that this theory occurred to him while he was walking with food in his hand. As he nibbled at the food in his hand, throwing away the small particles, it occurred to him that he could not divide the food into further parts and thus the idea of a matter which cannot be divided further came into existence. He called that indivisible matter anu, i.e. atom. He also stated that anu can have two states – Absolute rest and a State of motion.

The early Vaiśeṣika texts presented the following syllogism to prove that all objects i.e. the four bhūtas, pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire) and vāyu (air) are made of indivisible paramāṇus (atoms): Assume that the matter is not made of indivisible atoms, and that it is continuous.
Take a stone. One can divide this up into infinitely many pieces (since matter is continuous). Now, the Himalayan mountain range also has infinitely many pieces, so one may build another Himalayan mountain range with the infinite number of pieces that one has. One begins with a stone and ends up with the Himalayas, which is a paradox – so the original assumption that matter is continuous must be wrong, and so all objects must be made up of a finite number of paramāṇus (atoms).
According to the Vaiśeṣika school, the trasareṇu (dust particles visible in the sunbeam coming through a small window hole) are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as tryaṇukas (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as dvyaṇuka (dyad). The dvyaṇukas are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as paramāṇu (atom). The paramāṇus (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed.[13] Each paramāṇu (atom) possesses its own distinct viśeṣa (individuality).
The measure of the partless atoms is known as parimaṇḍala parimāṇa. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.

Ofcourse, knowledge of Atoms and Molecules was given through Bhagavata Purana and in Rig Veda, where cloning incidents were described.

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Animal cloning In vedas

Animal Cloning was done few years ago in modern world but human cloning is still not done successfully and it is also prohibited in almost all countries. In Ancient India, animal cloning was done to multiply number of cows and horses. In Rigveda, Rubhus are mentioned as brothers (Rubhu, Vajra and Vibhu) who brought youthfulness to their old parents. They even managed to bring back their lost skills. (They must have used ayurvedic recipes to bring back youthfulness. So much literature about such recipes exist even today but is neglected).

They even cloned a cow and a horse.

Seven different sages Kanva Medhatithi (1-20), Angirasa Kutsa (1-110,111), Deerghatamas (1-161), Vishvamitra (3-60), Vamadeva (4-33), Vasistha Maitravaruni (7-48), and Shrunu Arbhava (10-176) mentioned about Rubhus in their vedic verses.
These 7 sages belong to different generations, so it is known that Rubhus were known for their work over a long period of time.

The first work of Rubhus was to bring back youthfulness to their old parents. 

This is mentioned in multiple verses of Rig Veda.
1-20-4 – With their exclusive power they made their old parents youthful again.
1-110-8 – They made their old parents full of youth again by their skill.
1-111-1 – Ingenious Rubhus prepared a chariot for Indra, prepared two powerful horses (2nd being cloned from 1st), made their old parents youthful again and gave new mothers to orphaned calves or children.
1-161-7 – Oh Rubhus, with the power of your intelligence you converted your old parents into youthful state.
4-33-3 – Rubhus who made their old parents youthful again may come to our Yajna.
4-34-9 – Rubhus gave a new life to their old parents, to Aswinau, to a cow and a horse.
4-35-5 – Oh, ingenious Rubhus, you made your old parents youthful again.
4-36-3 – Oh, Rubhu, Vaja and Vibhu, your workmanship of making your old parents youthful again was praised by gods.

The second work of Rubhus was on cows and their first step was to produce a cow which yielded copious milk. (RigVeda 1-20-3).
Probably cows in that generation did not yield enough milk and to meet the demand, cloning was done.
They mention about a method where skin from cow’s back in taken and cells are multipled from it to produce a new cow (named Viswaroopa) which looks alike.

Third work of Rubhus brothers was to produce two powerful horses. First they created a horse (named Hari) and presented it to Indra. Then they produced another horse which is a clone of Hari and now both were used to yoked to his chariot (1-161-7, 4-33-10).

Before cloning, Rubhus brothers seem to have worked on living cells and their multiplication.
Sun gave ‘Chamasa‘ with Amruta to Rubhus (1-110-3) and they divided it into four equal parts.
‘Chamasa‘ here can be considered as a cell and amruta (immortal thing) makes it a living cell.
Rig Veda suggests a Chamasa having Chit or Chetana or Manas, so Chit-Chamasa means a living cell.
A fertilised egg can be called as ‘Chit Chamasa‘. It was divided into four by Rubhus, which means Rubhus evolved four animals from a single zygote or fertilised ovum.
This living cell or an embryo is prepared Twashta (God).

During the experiment, eldest brother(Rubu) said, “ we can make two cells from the original one ” (4-33-5). However, the younger(Vajra) brother said, “ We can make three” , because he observed that when one cell was divided into two, there were three cells.
The youngest brother(Vibhu) observed and said , “ We can make four ”, as second cell also can be divided equally like the first.

Next was human cloning, which is mentioned in story of King Vena.
He was a great king but became evil and corrupt. So, Mother Earth (Bhoodevi) decided that she would not provide crops to humans anymore.
A group of Rishis (Sages) killed King Vena out of anger. They removed all the evil from his corpse’s thigh.
Then they created his clone from his arm.
This clone had similar body but however, mind cannot be cloned. So, a new King who was named ‘Prithu’ was created with pure mind. He brought back Mother Earth (Bhoodevi) to her normal state and promised be her eternal guardian. This is why Earth (Bhoodevi is also known as Prithvi.

There are examples of abnormal cloning, like of Nishada in Vishnu Purana.
Nishada, though an abnormal clone, could live long and could produce children. His tribe was known after his name and King Nala (of the famous Nala-Damayanti story in Mahabharata) and Ekalavya were his descendants.

Rubhus had also made a chariot flying in air, so they were automobile engineers too.

There are many more instanced like the demon ‘Rakta Beeja’ or AhiRavana and Mahi-Ravana who produce Rakshasas(demons) who look like them from their blood drops in war. It might be cloning from the white blood corpuscles, which contain nuclei.

Citation-booksfacts.com

Electricity generation per Rig Veda, Atharva Veda

The Hindu Texts, the Vedas, Rig Veda ,Atharva Veda  speak about the nature of electricity.

Chapter 1: Hymn VII
Verse 2: Nav Yo Navati Puro bibhed bahvotjasaa
Ahi Cha vritrahaavadheet

Translation : Electricity , which breaks, by the energy of its arms the 99 cities, destroys the cloud, which covers the rays of the sun, the source of all energy and power.

Verse 3: Sa na Indrah Shivah sakhashwavad gomadvavama
Urudhaarev dohate

Translation : That very electric power may be our peaceful friend, providing us with the horse-power to drive our machines, light to light up our houses, and power to produce grains in the fields. Let it bring on prosperity and well-being for us by flowing into numerous currents.

Verse 4: Indra Kratuvidang sutang somang harya purushtut
Piba vrishaswa taatripim

Let electricity, so highly spoken of by many learned people, help extract the essence of medicines, thus produced by those, who are well-versed in manufacturing things. Let it keep safe and shower, on us the rain, satisfying all.

Chapter 3 :Hymn XXXI

Verse 1: Taa Vajrinam Mandinam Stomyam mad indram rathe vahato haryataa haree
Purunyasmay savanaani haryata indraaya somaa harayo dadhanwire

Translation : Those two speedily moving forces of attraction and repulsion propel the electric current, powerful like the thunderbolt, pleasant and praiseworthy, in this pleasant plane or car. Manifold are the generating powers for the refulgent electricity borne by speedy moving Somas – various kinds of liquid fuels.

Verse 2: Arang Kaamaay Haryo dadhanwire sthiraay hinvanharayo Haree tura
Arvadbhiyor Haribhijorshameeyate so asya kaamam harivantamaanashe

Translation : The above mentioned speedy forces of two kinds set in motion strong currents, capable of maintaining steady progress in the attainment of one’s objective in plenty. Whatever complex is attained by these fast moving horsepowers, is enough to achieve the beautiful objective of his, the manufacturer.

Chapter 2: Hymn XV

Verse 2: Adha te vishwamanu haasadishtaya aapo nimneva savanaa havishmatah
Yatparvate na samasheeta haryata indrasya vajrah shnathita hiranyayah

Translation : Just as all productive works of the manufacturer depend upon waters flowing down with speed, so do all the desired objects of him depend upon you (Electricity), as its powerful striking force cannot be obstructed by any cloud, or mountain in the way. It smashes all impediments, with its radiant energy.

Verse 3: Asmay Bheemaaya namasaa samadhwara usho na shubhra aa bharaa paneeyase
Yasya dhaam shravase naamendriyam jyotirkaari harito naayase

Translation : O well-versed engineer make use of this terrible electric power fit to be utilized for useful purposes by controlling it, for non-violent, brilliant light like the dawn. It has the potentiality to help hearing, control energy and spread light in all quarters.

Military / Warfare usage of Electrical Energy in Atharva Veda

Chapter 2: Hymn XV

Verse 6: Twam tamindra parvatam mahaamurum vajrena vajrinparvshashchakartitha
Avaasrijo nivritaah satarvaa apah satraa vishwam dadhishe kevalam sahah

Translation : Just as the thundering electricity reduces the vast cloud to nothing by its thunderbolt, so do you, O King, equipped with piercing weapons like the thunderbolt, smash into pieces the vast armies of the enemy, consisting of various units, by your striking power like the thunderbolt. Just as the waters of the cloud released by the electricity, fall down and flow over the earth, similarly the well-equipped armies of the enemy; being subdued by the might of the king are duly regulated by him. Truly do you alone, O King, hold all the power to subdue the foes.

Verse 5: Indra Idhyorah sacha sangmishal aa vachoyuja
Indro vajri Hiranyah

Translation : Electricity is well mixed up with Prana and Apana, the 2 horsepowers, yoked to power of speech. Electric power has the striking power of a deadly weapon and is full of brilliance.

Verse 1: Pra te mahe vidathe shansisham hari pra te vanve vanusho haryatam madam
Dhritam na yo haribhishcharu sechat aa tva vishantu harivparsang girah

Translation : O electricity, I fully praise thy two forces of protection and destruction in this great universe, which is a great sacrificial place or battlefield of life. I highly cherish your beautiful exhilaration, destroying the evil forces of the enemy. You shower various forms of fortunes through your blessing powers of speedy action, like waters from the clouds. Let all praises find their abode in you of charming splendor.

Verse 3: So asya vajro harito ya aayso harinirkaamo harira gabhastyoh
Dhumni sushipro harimanyusayaka indre ni roopa harita mimikshire

Translation : Here is the blue-green colored thunderbolt of iron of the king. There is also the beautiful horse of iron of high speed. Here is also the horsepower of the rays of electricity. There is also the shining arrow, capable of destroying the pride of the enemy and having a very high speed. In short many kinds of weapons have been made through electric power for the king.

Verse 4: Divi na keturadhi dhaayi haryato vivayachadvajro harito na ranghaya
Tudadahi harishipro ya aayasah sahastrashokaa abhavadharibharah

Translation : Like a radiant spot, it is well placed in the heavens, then with a high speed, the terribly destructive missile, made of iron, possessing speed of electric power, crushing the serpent natured enemy, becomes lit up with thousands of lights and loaded with destructive ray of various kinds.

Chapter 3: Hymn:XXI

Verse 7: Yudha yudhmup ghedeshi dhrishnuya pura puram samidam hansyojasa
Namya yadindra sakhya paraavati nibrahyo namuchi naam maayinam

Translation : O mighty King, you can easily get at the striking power of the enemy by your overwhelming striking force. Being well-entrenched in your sheltered place of defense, you can thoroughly break the defenses of the enemy to smithereens. Completely crush the deceitful enemy, unfit to be left alive, through your faithful ally, although stationed at a distance.

Verse 8: Tvam karnyajmut parnayam vadhistejisthayaatithigvasya vartani
Tvam shata vaddagridasyaabhintpuronaanudah parishuta rijishvana

Translation : O mighty electricity, you kill the violent enemy, equipped with speedy means of communication like cars or airships, a hindrance in the way of people who are worthy of respect, cows or land by your consuming and splendorous power. You shatter the 100 forts of the adversary who obstructs your communications or breaks your regulations and does not pay tribute to you established by straightforward negotiations.

Verse 9: Tvametam janrajyo dwidarshaabandhuna sushrvasopajagmushah
Pashisht sahastra navati nava shruto ni chakrena rathya dushpadavrinak

Translation : O electricity, you can by your circular motion like the wheel of a chariot, which is too powerful to be checked, well keep under control all these 20 basic elements, 6099 organic and inorganic bodies, by a single transmitter of high quality, with no other force to help it.

Verse 10: Tvamaavitha sushravasam tavotibhistava traambhirindra tuvrayaanam
Tvamasmay kutsamatithigvamaayum mahe raagye yoone arndhanaayah

Translation : O electricity, you keep in safety this good listening set, by your means of safety and protect the commander, with speedy mobile forces by your strong means of defense. You control the sharp weapons, equipped with the striking power of limitless time and speed for this great, youthful king.

Chapter 4: Hymn XXXVII

Verse 4: Tvam nibhinirmano devavitao bhooreeni vritraa haryashava hansi
Tvam ni dasyum chumuri dhuni chasvaapyo dabhitaye suhantu

Translation : O electrical currents of high voltage, safely carried by electric wires, you kill many enemies in the war, waged by learned persons or through the help of natural forces. To keep all the evil forces under control, you, being well-equipped with good means of destruction completely lay down to lasting sleep (death) the evil forces that rob and harass the general public.

There are many more such references to electricity and its potential usage mentioned in Atharva Veda and this proves that ancient seers in india knew much more than what modern scientsts know.
Atharva Veda was spread by travellers towards west during past 2000 years and most of its knowledge now lies in europe

Nuclear weapon

The Veds are a limitless store of true knowledge and skills. A very comprehensive, wide and huge store of the Vedic literature existed in India, but it was destroyed by foreign aggressors and thus was lost, even then, a lot of it was protected by great Rishis. It is said in the Veds: O human! Know about all those things and substances in numerous forms present in all the Loks and in the skies and water and the earth with the help of knowledge. (Rig. 5-52-7).

Westerners are given the credit for discoveries and inventions in modern times. The intellectual development of our life was completely blocked because for a very long time, we were an occupied nation by some foreign power or the other. And a subjugated people can’t have the liberty of even dreaming. Very slowly but surely, we were made to forget our glorious past and history, including the Vedic knowledge. Now that the shackles are broken, we can once again study and teach and learn our ancient Veds. Electricity is needed in life as much as all the other things, which is why The Veds contain knowledge about it, so that man can lead his life without problems.

Fire is its original form. The Sun is its ultimate form. Water produces it. (Taitiriya A. 7-3-2, Taitiriya U. 1-3-2). The electricity resides in the sun. (Taitiriya A.1-9-2) Thus, a number of sources for generation of electricity are explained. Fire, sun as well as water are considered as sources of electricity.Though the use of the sun is relatively new and to a much lesser extent, in the future, it will be possible to generate sufficient electricity from the solar power. Electricity is an atomic process. And so, as newer and newer substances are discovered which produce electricity, more and more electricity will be generated with atomic fission with the help of more and more modern machinery.

The aeronautical science by Bharadwaj Rishi included a number of machines and systems which ran on electricity. Even the television is described clearly in it. Combining spirituality and philosophy with science, let us make our coming generations capable of spreading this divine knowledge from the Veds all over the world.We consider it our prime duty to explain about electricity on the basis of the Veds.

(Rig. 1.32.13). To begin with, there is the description electricity which forms in the clouds in the form of lightning. Though it has tremendous power, it does not interfere with the solar power. However, Lord Indra can vanquish Vritra with the help of lightning.

(Rig. 1.23.12). We get electricity which emits blinding light, which we use for all kinds of tasks. Together with electricity, winds also bring us happiness.

(Rig. 1.6.5). This Mantra describes generation of electricity with the help of machines run on wind power. Electricity can be easily produced where winds are strong. (Rig. 1.64.9) This Mantra instructs about use of electricity in aeroplanes. It also describes land vehicles driven with electrical power.

(Rig. 8.64.29). Many kinds of jobs are performed with the help of electricity, using attraction, retraction, vaporization, freezing, air circulation, as well as generation of new substances. The universal cycle runs because the Almighty has kept the atoms and molecules moving. Electricity presents itself on the earth so that man can perform all kinds of useful tasks with its help.

(Rig. 1.168.8). When rains pour down on the earth from clouds, water in rivers gets agitated. Generation of electricity with the help of this agitated water brings smiles all around, meaning that the earth gets lighted up with lights run on electricity. God, you are great! What extraordinary knowledge you have provided in the Veds!.

(Rig. 3.1.14). Intelligent people combine life and soul. Similarly, electricity and fire are combined on the earth, and this knowledge is worth attaining for getting our wishes fulfilled. (Rig. 5.52.6). Wise and learned persons should attain enlightenment of knowledge about electricity etc, just as the armed forces bring lights into the life of people by protecting the nation.

(Rig. 5.54.11). This Mantra describes the equipment soldiers should carry. They must have sufficient arms, food, high quality airplanes, glinting armors to guard their bodies, helmets to protect their heads, powerful electrical rays that can destroy the enemy planes. This clearly means that there is a description of power electrical beams of waves or rays to be used by armed forces in the Veds.

�(Rig. 5.86.3). This Mantra advices kings and emperors that just as the sun uses its powerful rays to destroy clouds and causes rains on the earth which brings happiness to the people, the kings and emperors too should use the power of electricity to destroy enemies and bring happiness to their subjects.

(Rig. 5.87.10). This Mantra describes that we can clearly listen to our speech elsewhere, with the help of vibration of electrical waves.

All these Mantras describe the electrical science in the Mantras. Today, foreigners are making money very small gadgets with the help of electrical shells (cells). We are as yet behind in this race of science, but we can safely assume that we can attain our rightful place at the top in the field of science and knowledge, on the basis of our glorious past.

(Yaju. 32.2) This is a Mantra from the Yajurved. Physically, electricity generated is intended for the betterment and benefit of mankind, but it depends on man’s tendencies whether to use it constructively or destructively. The Almighty is seen in the form of electricity. It (He) creates the cycle of time. It cannot be captured in physical form anywhere. Thus, all good work can be performed only because of the might of the Almighty (electricity).

citation- vedpradip.com 

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Ancient Guns in India

ANCIENT Fire-Arms:

There are certain references in Ancient Puranas regarding use of fire arms. But we don't have solid proof regarding this as puranic stories are either called as symbolic or myths.

But Chanakya aka Kautilya -the ancient genius on politics,economies and strategies mentions the use fire arms.The proximity of India to China(land of gun powder) also plays an important factor about Firearms in ancient times.

It would be interesting to examine the true nature of the agneya-astras. Kautilya describes agni-bana, and mentions three recipes - agni-dharana, ksepyo-agni-yoga, and visvasaghati. Visvasaghati was composed of 'the powder of all the metals as red as fire or the mixture of the powder of kumbhi, lead, zinc, mixed with the charcoal and with oil wax and turpentine.' From the nature of the ingredients of the different compositions it would appear that they were highly inflammable and could not be easily extinguished.

A recent writer remarks:

'The Visvasaghati-agni-yoga was virtually a bomb which burst and the fragments of metals were scattered in all directions. The agni-bana was the fore-runner of a gun-shot.....

Sir A. M. Eliot tells us that the Arabs learnt the manufacture of gunpowder from India, and that before their Indian connection they had used arrows of naptha. It is also argued that though Persia possessed saltpetre in abundance, the original home of gunpowder was India. It is said that the Turkish word top and the Persian tupang or tufang are derived from the Sanskrit word dhupa. The dhupa of the Agni Purana means a rocket, perhaps a corruption of the Kautaliyan term natadipika.

(source: Fire-Arms in Ancient India - By Jogesh Chandra Ray I.H.Q. viii. p. 586-88)

Ancient Indian Astrologers

Paramesvara was an Indian astronomer and mathematician who wrote many commentaries on earlier works as well as making many observations.He is inspired from Madhava's work on mathematics in Kerala. Although his father has not been identified, we know that Paramesvara was born into a Namputiri Brahmana family who were astrologers and astronomers. The family home was Vatasseri (sometimes called Vatasreni) in the village of Alattur. This village was in Kerala and Paramesvara himself gives its coordinates with respect to Ujjain. This puts it at latitude 10° 51' north. It is on the north bank of the river Nila at its mouth.

From Paramesvara's writing we know that Rudra was his teacher, and Nilakantha, who knew Paramesvara personally, tells us that Paramesvara's teachers included Madhava and Narayana. We can be fairly confident that the dates we have given for Paramesvara are roughly correct since he made eclipe observations over a period of 55 years. We will say a little more about these observations below. He played an important part in the remarkable developments in mathematics which took place in Kerala in the late 14th and early part of the 15th century.

The commentaries by Paramesvara on a number of works have been published. For example the Karmadipika is a commentary on the Mahabhaskariyam, an astronomical and mathematical work by Bhaskara I, and its text . In the text of Paramesvara's commentary on the Laghubhaskariyam of Bhaskara I is given. Munjala wrote the astronomical work Laghumanasam in the year 932 and Paramesvara wrote a commentary . It is a work containing typical topics for Indian mathematical astronomy works of this period: the mean motions of the heavenly bodies; the true motions of the heavenly bodies; miscellaneous mathematical rules; the systems of coordinates, direction, place and time; eclipses of the sun and the moon; and the operation for apparent longitude.

Aryabhata gave a rule for determining the height of a pole from the lengths of its shadows in the Aryabhatiya. Paramesvara gave several illustrative examples of the method in his commentary on the Aryabhatiya.

Like many mathematicians from Kerala, Madhava clearly had a very strong influence on Paramesvara. One can see throughout his work that it is teachings by Madhava which direct much of Paramesvara's mathematical ideas. One of Paramesvara's most remarkable mathematical discoveries, no doubt influenced by Madhava, was a version of the mean value theorem. He states the theorem in his commentary Lilavati Bhasya on Bhaskara II's Lilavati. There are other examples of versions of the mean value theorem in Paramesvara's work which we now consider.

The Siddhantadipika by Paramesvara is a commentary on the commentary of Govindasvami on Bhaskara I's Mahabhaskariya. Paramesvara gives some of his eclipse observations in this work including one made at Navaksetra in 1422 and two made at Gokarna in 1425 and 1430. This work also contains a mean value type formula for inverse interpolation of the sine. It presents a one-point iterative technique for calculating the sine of a given angle. In the Siddhantadipika Paramesvara also gives a more efficient approximation that works using a two-point iterative algorithm which turns out to be essentially the same as the modern secant method.

The expression for the radius of the circle in which a cyclic quadrilateral is inscribed, given in terms of the sides of the quadrilateral, is usually attributed to Lhuilier in 1782. However Paramesvara described the rule 350 years earlier. If the sides of the cyclic quadrilateral are a, b, c and d then the radius r of the circumscribed circle was given by Paramesvara as:

r2 = x/y where

x = (ab + cd) (ac + bd) (ad + bc)

and y = (a + b + c - d) (b + c + d - a) (c + d + a - b) (d + a + b - c).

Paramesvara made a series of eclipse observations between 1393 and 1432 which we have referred to above. The last observation which we know he made was in 1445 but Nilakantha quotes a verse by Paramesvara in which he claims to have made observations spanning 55 years. The known observatons by Paramesvara do not quite square with this statement, there being a discrepancy of three years. Although we do not know when Paramesvara died we do know, again from Nilakantha, that the two knew each other personally. Since we have a definite date for Nilakantha's birth of 1444 it is hard to believe that Paramesvara died before 1460.

Using his observations, Paramesvara made revisions of the planetary parameters and, like many other Indian astronomers, he constantly attempted to compare the theoretically computed positions of the planets with those which he actually observed. He was keen to improve the theoretical model to bring it into as close an agreement with observations as possible.

Mind ,Matter, Consciousness

What is mind? No matter!

What is matter?

Never mind!Even as scientists all over the world are making concerted efforts to understand the human mind and the human consciousness, a plethora of provocative questions still remain unanswered. As someone said, if we could satisfactorily explain the workings of our minds, our brains would be so simple and underdeveloped that we wouldn't be able to understand anything! This is a definite limitation of the conventional sciences. And here's where people take recourse to spirituality, imagination and the occult.

Vedic Science Has the Answers!

Professor Ashok Sharma, a former Indian professor of Applied Physics, who was also a scientist at Harvard University, has formulated some path-breaking theories and postulations based on the ancient Vedic Sciences that give us some powerful insights into the gray regions of the human mind, and help us understand our consciousness.Even after treading for long in the realm of science, Prof Sharma feels that science fails to understand consciousness as an independent entity. He says, "Science cannot integrate a non-physical entity, like consciousness, into its conceptual framework, and views human personality as a non-conscious physical system."

What is Consciousness?

Consciousness, according to Prof Sharma, is a non-physical entity, which is essentially different from the four basic entities of space, time, energy and matter of the conventional science. Consciousness does not have any physical attribute or property or action, but is endowed with autonomous will power of creation, retention and annihilation of the knowledge of an individual or that of the universe.Quoting the Upanishads (Shvetashwar, 6/19), he says that consciousness itself is non-differentiable, inactive, placid, indescribable and non associative:"Nirajanam Nishkriam Shantam Nirvadyam Niranjanam"But again, consciousness manifests itself in the form of knowledge.
Sharma's Formula

In the light of the above discussion, Prof Sharma has put forward a formula, where consciousness is represented by a symbol Ψ, which is a set of concepts of knowledge. In the normal state of consciousness, an individual human mind or a conscious system is capable of the finite set of concepts of knowledge I, i.e.,Ψn = I,which he defines as Ego, soul, Atman or Karan Sharir.However, the field of the non-physical entity of consciousness can be expanded to infinity, so as to cognize the total infinite set of concepts of knowledge G, i.e.,Ψ∞= G,which he variously defines as God, Parmathma or Brahma.

Yoga & Meditation

Prof Sharma points out that consciousness is endowed with autonomous will power, and the techniques of Yoga and meditation must be considered as the methods of realization of the self and the development of the will power (Sankalpa Shakti) for the expansion of the field of consciousness Ψ.
Bridging the Gap

Sharma quotes Prof Wigner - "The very study of the physical world leads to the conclusion that the concept of consciousness is an ultimate reality and, all the possible knowledge, concerning objects can be given as its wave function" - and concludes that the gap between Vedic and scientific systems of knowledge has been considerably reduced and scientists have started realizing the necessity of integration of consciousness with the conceptual structure of science.

In Summary

The basic conceptual structure of Prof Ashok Sharma's "Science of Consciousness" can be summarized as a set of the following propositions:The element of consciousness (Chetan Tatva) is the fundamental entity, which is non-physical, inactive, placid, indescribable and non-associative, but endowed with autonomous will power (Swasankalpa Shakti) to create, retain and annihilate all concepts of knowledge of self and the universe, which can be represented by the symbol Ψ. The concept of consciousness is, essentially, analogous to the vacuum states of the relativistic quantum field theory, except for its autonomous will power.The phenomena of existence of the world are, essentially, the existence of the concepts of knowledge of the phenomenal world in the unified field of consciousness. In view of the non-physical nature of the consciousness, the concept of the unified field of consciousness must be clearly distinguished from the unified field of the physical fields.The stimulus-response function of the conscious system of human personality is due to the association of consciousness, with physiological brain, so as to provide the operation of mind, 'Ideation Body' or Karan Sharir. In the normal state of consciousness Ψn, an individual is ignorant about his full potentialities and depends on the knowledge gained through the sensory perception for the expansion of the field of consciousness of knowledge. Since, in the normal state of consciousness, an individual has the capacity of the cognition of a limited set I of the concepts of knowledge, it can be defined as Soul, 'Ideation Body', Atma or Karan Sharir, represented by, Ψn = I.The field of consciousness can be expanded by the development of the capability of non-sensory intuitive cognition of knowledge through the techniques of Yoga and meditation, so as to attain the super-conscious state, in which an individual has direct intuitive revelation of knowledge. The final state of Yogic attainment is to have the consciousness of the infinite set of knowledge of the universe, i.e., Ψ∞ = G, which can be interpreted as the realization of God, Allah, Paramatma or Brahman.

The Future of Science!

Prof Sharma, who now lives in New Delhi, is currently working on the conceptual development of the Science of Consciousness, Social System Science and Social Engineering. He hopes that the heritage of the Vedic system of knowledge should be viewed as the future extension of the present non-conscious science, as the science of consciousness.
Need of the Hour

"There is an urgent need to reinterpret the Vedic texts in modern terms - a task which is now possible with the availability of computers and the recent developments in the fields of cognitive sciences, artificial intelligence and theories of knowledge representation", says Prof Sharma, adding, "However, such an effort requires a concerted effort of the enlightened community of Indians."

Men were in earth for millions of years, not 6000 as per Bible/Quran

The Nihewan Basin in China Credit: Xu Ming/Global Times

Human beings are not 6000 yrs old as per bible and quran- Archaeologists in China have found two million-year-old stone toys.

Excavation at basin in Hebei province, China, brought new eyeopener discovery-- a two-million-year-old ‘playground’ of ancient hominids complete with stone artifacts carved by women and children, and toys.
The discovery was made at the Heigugou site in the Nihewan basin, the site of some of the earliest Paleolithic remains in East Asia. The basin used to be an enormous lake, which provided an ideal habitat for early hominids.
Nihewan was first discovered in 1921 and has already produced significant archaeological findings including a dining area where hunters ate their kills, ancient animal fossils and stone tools dating back an incredible 2 million years. The well-preserved nature of the tools suggests they were buried by a sudden event, like a landslide, preventing further damage by wind and water erosion.

South China Morning Post reports that archaeologists found more than 700 stone artifacts and 20,000 fragmented pieces dating to between 1.77 and 1.95 million years old in an area less than six square meters. An examination of the artifacts suggests that they were too small to have been made by males. More than 80 per cent of them ranged from 20 – 50 mm in length, which researchers believe points to the fact that they were carved by women and children. One artifact in particular seems to be a toy made by a mother for her child
“This is an amazing discovery,” said professor Wei Qi, paleoanthropologist with the Chinese Academy of Sciences and lead scientist of the project at the Heitugou site in Nihewan basin. “The site is a treasure chamber that may hold some useful clues to answer a lot of important questions, from the social structure of the early hominids to whether, when and how they arrived in Asia all the way from Africa.”
MORE

• Research suggests Neanderthal children played with toy axes
• Archaeologists discover 2,400-year-old Terracotta Baby Bottle

MORE

• Early Humans Lived in China 1.7 Million Years Ago
• The Mysterious Ancient Artifacts of Sanxingdui that have Rewritten Chinese History

Read more: http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/archaeologists-china-million-year-old-stone-toys-020273#ixzz3VWt8On5q
http://theweek.com/speedreads/546543/chinese-archaeologists-find-2millionyearold-playground-ancient-toys
 

Distance of Lokas,Universe

All the universes are clustered together up and down, and each and every one of them is separately sevenfold-covered. The watery portion is beyond the sevenfold coverings, and each covering is ten times more expansive than the previous covering.
The extent of the cosmic phenomenon is calculated to be diametrically (both ways) four billion miles. Then the coverings of the universe begin. The first stratum of the covering (earth) is calculated to extend eighty million miles, a...nd the subsequent coverings of the universe are respectively of fire, effulgence, air and ether, one after another, each extending ten times further than the previous. (SB 2.2.28 p.)

1 yojan = 8 miles = 12,8 km
Dhruvaloka, the polestar, is 3,800,000 yojanas above the sun. Above Dhruvaloka by 10,000,000 yojanas is Maharloka, above Maharloka by 20,000,000 yojanas is Janaloka, above Janaloka by 80,000,000 yojanas is Tapoloka, and above Tapoloka by 120,000,000 yojanas is Satyaloka. Thus the distance from the sun to Satyaloka is 233,800,000 yojanas, or 1,870,400,000 miles. The Vaikuntha planets begin 26,200,000 yojanas (209,600,000 miles) above Satyaloka. Thus the Visnu Purana describes that the covering of the universe is 260,000,000 yojanas (2,080,000,000 miles) away from the sun. (SB 5.23.9 p.)
From decoding 5 th canto of srimadbhagvatam
This phenomenal material world is expanded to a diameter of four billion miles,... (Srimad Bhagavatam 3.11.40 Sri Maitreya to Vidura)
The statement above made by Sri Maitreya Muni is straightforward and exact.
Learned scholars who are free from mistakes, illusions and propensities to cheat have thus described the planetary systems and their particular symptoms, measurements and locations.
With great deliberation, they have established the truth that the distance between Sumeru and the mountain known as Lokaloka is one fourth of the diameter of the universe — or, in other words, 125,000,000 yojanas [1 billion miles].
(Srlmad Bhagavatam 5.20.38; Srila Sukadeva Gosvami to Maharaja
Pariksit)
The diameter of the universe is plainly stated by Srila Sukadeva Goswami to be pahcdsat-koti (500,000,000 yojanas or four billion miles.) Since there is agreement between the acaryas what is the need for speculation on this subject?
"A Radical Position"
To say that everything outside a four-billion-mile diameter shell is imaginary
is indeed a radical position. It is practically indefensible within modern society.
Unlike Darwin's theory, which has numerous scientific flaws (as admitted recently by many serious scientists), the "Universe Within Four Billion Miles Theory" cannot be supported by scientific evidence or arguments. If you doubt this, please consult with some scientists and see.
For certain there was no one more radical than Srila Prabhupada when it came to opposing modern scientific theories.
He tested them in the laboratory of the Bhagavatam and then gave his pronouncement. Of course we are not saying that "everything" outside the four-billion-mile diameter shell is imaginary, there are layers, then trillions of other universes, then paravyoma, etc.
We do not have a narrow vision of cosmology, it is far vaster that the modern scientists can imagine even using their millions of light year calculations.
We do say that the estimates given for the distances of planets within our visible sky by astronomers are inaccurate because they do not tally with the Bhagavatam. Otherwise, if we do not accept fully the Bhagavatam, what does it mean to see through the eyes of the shastra.
We should not be intimidated by the scientists.
For a common man, both modern science and Vedic wisdom are simply to be accepted because none of the statements either of modern science or of Vedic literature can be verified by him.
The alternative for a common man is to believe either of them or both of them. The Vedic way of understanding, however, is more authentic because it has been accepted by the acaryas, who are not only faithful and learned men, but are also
liberated souls without any of the flaws of conditioned souls.
The modern scientists, however, are conditioned souls liable to so many errors and mistakes; therefore the safe side is to accept the authentic version of Vedic
literatures, like Srimad- Bhagavatam, which is accepted unanimously by the great acaryas. (Srimad Bhagavatam 2.2.26 Purport)
It is not scientific for astronomers to theorize about a universe to which they have such little access. Neither is it wise to assign unverifiable distances to objects seen in the sky through telescopes and insist this is the only feasible explanation.
There are so many flaws in that empirical approach where observation and experiment are lacking, what to speak of the total absence of proof.
1) deficient material telescopes
2) our proneness to making mistakes
3) using one's imperfect eyes
4) being subject to illusion
5) using limited brains
6) using restricted intelligence
7) tendency to cheat
This vivid description of how the rays of the sun are distributed throughout
the different planetary systems of the universe is very scientific . Sukadeva
Gosvami described these universal affairs to Maharaja Pariksit as he had heard about them from his predecessor. He explained these facts five thousand years ago, but the knowledge existed long, long before.
Sukadeva Gosvami received it through disciplic succession. Because this
knowledge is accepted through the disciplic succession, it is perfect.
The history of modern scientific knowledge, on the contrary, does not go back more than a few hundred years.
Therefore, even if modern scientists do
not accept the other factual presentations of Srimad-Bhagavatam, how can they deny the perfect astronomical calculations that existed long before they could imagine such things?
There is so much information to gather from Srimad-Bhagavatam. Modem scientists, however, have no information of Other planetary systems and, indeed, are hardly conversant with the planet on which we are now living. (Srimad Bhagavatam 5.20.37
Purport)
Attempting to discover universal truths by telescope, mathematics and imaginativeness is defective from the outset.
Vaisnavas are not supposed to be concerned with the current theories about the size of the universe presented by the cavalcade of dying so-called scientists.
As far as we are concerned, we follow the authority of Vydsadeva and Sukadeva Gosvami, who have described the universal situation according to the Vedic literature.
These authorities differ from modern scientists who conclude from their imperfect sensual experience that only this planet is inhabited by living beings whereas the other planets are all vacant or full of dust. (Srimad Bhagavatam 7.4.17 Purport